Christopher Columbus (Cristoforo Colombo)
Early Life and Seafaring Career
Many locations in both east and west Liguria are fighting for
this honour, including Genoa, Chiusano and Cogoleto, while the town of Moconesi
in the Fontanabuona valley has a building marked as "the house of the ancestors
of Columbus". However, this tradition does not seem to be supported by the name
of Columbus's parents, who are named in historical documents as Domenico "from
Quinto" and Susanna Fontanarossa "from Quezzi". According to many historians,
one of Columbus's ancestors moved from the Fontanabuona Valley to Quinto: this
is why an itinerary that traces that journey is called the "Columbus" itinerary.
What is certain is that the Columbus family lived in Genoa before the birth of
Christopher, which occurred in 1451. His father Domenico belonged to the guild
of master wool makers and had five children. He went to Savona on business and
later moved there with his family in 1470 or thereabouts. Christopher did not
follow in his father's footsteps but embarked as a cabin boy, perhaps in the
port of Noli, when he was very young.
Besides his practical navigation experience, which he increased with journeys
all over the Mediterranean to the Genoese colonies and also along the Atlantic
coast of Africa, he also studied cartography: there were many cartographer's
workshops in Savona and his brother Bartolomeo may have worked in one of these.
Christopher became increasingly convinced that he could cross the Atlantic in
the direction of the parallels, on the basis of his experience, the seagoing
knowledge of his time and an intuitive insight for the best routes for the
outgoing and homecoming voyage.
Once he had planned the voyage, Columbus went to Lisbon to
ask the king to finance his adventure. Since he was unsuccessful, he went to the
king and queen of Castille: at first they refused but then decided to finance
his huge expenses for shipping and crew. Moreover, he was promised a percentage
of the riches if his voyage was successful and would also be made "Admiral of
the Ocean" and Viceroy of the lands he conquered.
On 3 August 1492 Christopher Columbus set sail from Palos with his three
galleons. He reached his destination on 12 October of the same year. Convinced
that he had reached the eastern coast of India, he called the local natives
Indians. His return aroused great enthusiasm throughout Spain. But soon Columbus
found himself having to deal with jealousy and envy at court because of the
great privileges that had been promised to him by the queen, who died shortly
afterwards, leaving Columbus without protection. Intrigues and slander, which
were encouraged by the near-failure of his subsequent journeys and by problems
with the natives, led to his imprisonment. He was eventually released with honor
but he was no longer in a position to defend his privileges against the young
aristocrats who were demanding the right to exploit the wealth of the "Indies".
He died in 1506 in Valladolid without ever realizing that he had discovered a
new continent: only some years later did the maps of the world also show the
Americas.
House of C. Columbus (Genoa Italy) 
Early Life and Seafaring Career
Beginning his seagoing career at age 14, Columbus served on various ships in various roles, including messenger, common sailor, and, perhaps, even as a 21-year-old privateer. Columbus’s son Ferdinand stated in History of the Life and Deeds of Christopher Columbus that in 1472 Columbus was given command of a ship on a private expedition to Tunis in northern Africa. In a lost letter, Columbus supposedly related to his son how René I, duke of the French province of Anjou, had commissioned Columbus to make a surprise attack on a large Spanish ship sailing off the coast of North Africa. Most historians doubt, however, that Columbus ever received command of the expedition.
Much more credible, though, is a subsequent expedition. In 1474 Columbus was hired as a sailor on a ship bound for the island of Khíos in the Aegean Sea, an arm of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. This was his first long voyage and must have proved profitable, because after spending a year on the island he was able to become economically independent from his family. This voyage also represents a great irony in the life of Columbus—the trip to this small island in the Aegean brought him the closest he would ever get to Asia.
On August 13, 1476, a Genoese commercial expedition of five ships bound for England gave Columbus his first opportunity to leave the Mediterranean Sea and sail into the Atlantic Ocean. But it was an inauspicious beginning for Columbus: According to tradition, the entire fleet was attacked by French privateers off Cape Saint Vincent on the southwestern tip of Portugal. Both sides lost ships; Columbus, one of the unfortunate ones whose ship was burned, had no escape other than to swim for the Portuguese coast. He made it the 10 km (6 mi) to shore by clinging to wreckage. After regaining his strength in the port of Lagos, Columbus made his way to Lisbon and its large community of Genoese merchants and shipbuilders. He was 25 years old.
Columbus departed Palos, Spain, with three ships on August 3, [1492]. The three ships together carried 104 (some historians say 87) men with equipment for repairing ships, and supplies. After a stop at the Canary Islands off the west coast of Africa, Columbus had the Nina converted to square sails because it was lagging behind. The crews loaded fresh water and fruit aboard. On September 6, 1492, the ships got underway, sailing into uncharted seas, out of sight of land.
Columbus' ships covered approximately 150 miles a day. His seafaring instincts were extraordinary. His crews used a compass for direction and a chip log (a knotted line with a wooden weight attached at the end) to measure speed. A sailor counted how many knots were let off the reel in the time allotted. Multiplying the average rate of a ship's speed by a fixed amount of time gave a rough estimate of the distance traveled. Columbus, however, relied on dead reckoning, meaning he used his experience, intuition, observations, and guesswork to determine his ships' positions.}
![[Image
of Pinta and Santa Maria]](american_history_christofer_colu_files/image011.jpg)
Columbus had three ships on his first voyage, the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. The flagship Santa Maria had the nickname La Gallega. It was a nao, which simply means "ship" in old Spanish; today, we might call such a ship a carrack. She was fat and slow, designed for hauling cargo, not for exploration. Some sources say that the Santa Maria was about 100 tons, meaning that it could carry 100 toneladas, which were large casks of wine. There has been much speculation about just how large such a ship would be; the best current thinking, by Carla Rahn Philips, puts the length of Santa Maria at 18 meters, keel length at 12 meters, beam 6 meters, and a depth of 3 meters from keel to deck.
The Santa Maria had three masts (fore, main, and mizzen), each of which carried one large sail. The foresail and mainsail were square; the sail on the mizzen, or rear, mast was a triangular sail known as a lateen. In addition, the ship carried a small square sail on the bowsprit, and small topsail on the mainmast above the mainsail
The Pinta was captained by Martín Alonso Pinzón, a leading mariner from the town of Moguer in Andalucia. Pinta was a caravel, a smaller, lighter, and faster ship than the tubby Santa Maria. We don't know much about Pinta, but it probably was about 70 tons. Philips puts the length of Pinta at 17 meters, keel length 13 meters, beam 5 meters, and depth 2 meters. She probably had three masts, and most likely carried sails like those of Santa Maria, except for the topsail, and perhaps the spritsail
Smallest of the fleet was the Niña, captained by Vicente Añes Pinzón, brother of Martín. The Niña was another caravel of probably 50 or 60 tons, and started from Spain with lateen sails on all masts; but she was refitted in the Canary Islands with square sails on the fore and main masts. Unlike most ships of the period, Niña may have carried four masts, including a small counter-mizzen at the stern with another lateen sail. This would have made Niña the best of the three ships at sailing upwind. Philips puts her length at 15 meters, keel length 12 meters, beam 5 meters, and depth 2 meters
Columbus’s Arrival in the Americas
With 17 ships, 1,200 men and boys including sailors, soldiers, colonists, priests, officials, gentlemen of the court, and horses, Columbus set out on another journey to the west. He left the port of C diz, Spain, on September 25, 1493 aboard the Mariagalante, his flagship. His purpose for this trip was to establish colonies in the name of Spain, to check on his crew left behind at the fort of Navidad, and to find great riches in what he believed to be part of the Far East. After another stop at the Canary Islands, the fleet of ships left for Hispaniola and new lands on October 12. His fleet sighted land on November 3 and discovered the islands of Dominica, Guadeloupe, and Jamaica. He was convinced he'd located the islands just off Japan, but gold and riches were nowhere to be found. On November 27, Columbus reached Hispaniola to look in on his crew at Navidad. After landing, he discovered all his men dead and the fort destroyed. The Spanish crew had mistreated the Indians, and the natives retaliated with violence. Columbus established the first colony of Santo Domingo and became the governor of the island. He and his men eventually conquered the island of Hispaniola after defeating the Indians in battle in 1495. Rumors reached Ferdinand and Isabella that he governed Indian and Spaniard alike with brutality. Columbus placed his two brothers in charge of the colony and set sail for Spain on March 10, 1496. Arriving in Cadiz on July 31, he prepared to meet with the Spanish monarchs.
Columbus and Indigenous Peoples
The monarchs financed yet another voyage for Columbus. On May 30, 1498, Columbus set sail with six ships. After a stop at the Canary Islands, three set sail for Hispaniola and three with Columbus at the lead, took a southern route. On July 31, still searching for China, the great explorer discovered the islands of Trinidad, Tobago, Grenada, and Margarita. He thought he spotted yet another island, but actually he discovered the mainland of the South American continent. He returned to Hispaniola on August 31 to find that the inhabitants of the colony were short of food and rebellious. Alarmed at the news, the Spanish monarchs sent a representative to investigate in 1500. Columbus was arrested and sent back to Spain in chains. Arriving in October, he was able to vindicate himself with Ferdinand and Isabella, but never forgot the humiliation of the chains
Anxious to win back his good name and discover riches in the Far East, Columbus set sail once again for the new lands. He left Cadiz on May 9, 1502, with four ships and 150 crewmen, one being his 13-year-old son, Diego. He arrived in Hispaniola on June 29 only to be forbidden to land lest he stir up trouble in the colony. A powerful hurricane blew in shortly after Columbus' arrival and destroyed most of the Spanish ships heading back to Spain. Columbus' ships were spared. On July 4, he set out to look once again for a way to the East, finding instead present-day Central America. On January 6, 1503, his ships anchored off the coast of Panama. Some gold was found in this area, so the explorers set up a trading post. This venture was short-lived as the native Indians grew unfriendly and forced the Spaniards to flee. Exploration of these new regions was fraught with problems. Columbus was sick, the food was rotten, the ships were worm-infested and leaking. Only two ships survived to make the return journey to Hispaniola. The winds blew them off course and the two ships eventually made it to Jamaica on June 25, 1503. The ships were so badly damaged that they could not make it to Hispaniola. Columbus sent men in canoes to the colony to seek a rescue. The royal governor delayed sending help until a year later. During the long wait, Columbus' men mutinied and tried to sail away on their own but failed each time. In addition, the native Indians tried to starve the sailors by refusing to help find food. Columbus had to use trickery to get the Indians to cooperate. After the rescue, Columbus, disappointed at his failure to find a new route to the East, sailed for Spain on November 7, 1504. He settled with his son in a house in Seville and awaited a royal summons from the king and queen. But the summons never came.
Queen Isabella was quite ill when Columbus returned. When she died on November 26, 1504, Columbus lost his friend and benefactor. Even though he was wealthy from his many explorations, he still felt he should be restored as governor of Hispaniola. Finally in the spring of 1505, Ferdinand called him to court. The king heard theexplorer's petition, but did nothing. A year later, Christopher Columbus was ill. He died on May 20 [1506], disappointed that he never found the route to the East and convinced he had set foot in Asia rather than a new world. Certainly Columbus was not the first European explorer to discover America. The Vikings and the native people of these lands were there before him. What was so significant about his discoveries was that they opened a pathway from the Old World to the New and changed life forever on both sides of the Atlantic.